ISSUES POSITION PAPER

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Erin Rankin
Marine Affairs Program
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia

 

Incorporating Traditional Ecological Knowledge into Identifying and Creating a Research Program for the Establishment of Marine Protected Areas, With Application to the Scotian Shelf.

 

1.0 Background

 

1.1 What is an MPA?

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been established in regions throughout the world with over 1,300 currently being designated (DFO 1997). Successful initiatives have been carried out in many countries including New Zealand, Philippines, USA, St. Lucia, and UK (Kelleher et al. 1995). The premise of marine reserves is simply that if areas are set aside for protection (i.e.- free from human interference), nature will take care of itself, with the net result being preservation of biodiversity and recovery damaged components of the ecosystem (Bohnsack 1993). Indeed, MPAs have shown in many cases to be an effective way of conserving biodiversity in marine environments, as well as an effective management tools in fisheries (Bohnsack 1993, Ballentine 1995 and Allison et. al. 1998).

 

2.0 Using TEK to Identify Areas for Research and the Development of a Research Program

 

2.1 The Importance of TEK to Planning MPAs

Although, there is quite a large volume of literature on the benefits and planning of MPAs, very few articles have been produced on the role of traditional ecological knowledge in developing a system of MPAs (particularly in Atlantic Canada). TEK becomes important to planning MPAs because it is a knowledge system that is largely based on a more holistic approach to understanding the natural environment (Cowper 1999). A successful systems plan of MPAs should be based on the preservation of the broader marine ecosystem, not the preservation of a single species (although this could be the one of the many goals associated with a systems plan). Thus, the creation of an MPA system that preserves the broader marine ecosystem requires a 'holistic' knowledge base. Indeed, Neis (1995) argues that "fishery workers' ecological knowledge can provide an important ingredient in the successful development of marine protected areas." Neis (1995) further shows that one of their greatest contributions to the establishment of MPAs is that fishers can broaden the collective understanding of marine ecosystems and facilitate the design of MPAs such that they become effective conservation tools.

The importance of knowledge base that TEK provides cannot be overstated as modern marine sciences have been largely based on a reductionist approach which has created a knowledge base rich in isolated detail but weak in the understanding of marine ecosystems. For example, fisheries science has tended to concentrate on the understanding of single species and has done so largely out of context of other ecosystem dynamics. As resource management practices have been evolving towards a more ecosystemic approach (Christensen et al. 1996), TEK has become valued by the mainstream scientific system, as there has been recognition among the later that the former provides new biological and ecological insights (Cowper 1999). In the ocean and coastal sphere science has a long way to catch up in terms of providing and adequate knowledge for the establishment of MPAs. As Neis (1995) rightly points out "the scale of marine ecosystems, their dynamics, fluid and three-dimensional character, as well as their unfamiliarity to science and to protected areas managers represent formidable challenges to those who support the development of MPAs."

Although TEK has been identified as potentially bringing a holistic understanding of the marine environment, TEK can not provide the entire knowledge base for planning MPAS. As identified by Cowper (1999) TEK tends to suffer from a lack of a wider perspective (e.g. the ability to view ecological phenomena at the microscopic level or over large distances) (Cowper 1999). However, TEK as demonstrated above is a critical component to the overall process. Perhaps one of the most important roles TEK can play is to become a key method for identifying areas for potential research, as well as playing an active role in the design of research plans and projects. Hence, this project envisions using TEK to become a method for helping academic and government agencies identify where research might be needed in terms of answering questions surrounding MPAs.

 

2.2 Components of TEK Important in Identifying Research Areas/Defining Research Programs

Although there is no one single definition of TEK, there are many working definitions (Johnson 1992; Neis 1995). The working definition Neis (1995) uses is a definition by Mailhot, who defines TEK as "the sum of the data and ideas acquired by a human group on its environment as a result of the group's use and occupation of a region over many generations." Neis (1995) further lists a number of what she considers major components of this definition:

  1. the categories used by groups to classify components of the environment and the organization of these categories into systems of representation
  2. empirical data on the environment including spatial distribution of the components, the behavior of plants and animals, and relationships between species, interpretation of natural phenomena;
  3. the use groups make of the components of the environment, e.g. for food and religious purposes
  4. the management system covering natural resources including their conservation practices and mechanisms for assessing the state of the resources and management of them;
  5. the world view of groups including their conception of the universe, the place of humans and nature within it, and relations between all forms of life.

Neis's components are useful when trying to organize thoughts about how TEK might work to provide a research basis for planning MPAs. As Neis (1995) points out "TEK is complex and could contribute to the successful development of MPAs on many levels." For example, one area TEK could become critical is to help the development of a body of research to allow for the creation of a model for systematic planning of marine protected areas based in part on benthic mapping.

Currently, there are several proposed classifications systems of marine landscapes. These classification systems provide a basis for planning marine protected areas as they categorize and differentiate between marine landscapes (Davis 1995). Davis (1995) points out what that this system needs to be further developed to include information on habitat requirements and ecological interrelationships. Fuller and Cameron's (1998) study shows clearly the application of fisher's traditional ecological knowledge to the deepening understanding of ecological interrelationships. Fuller and Cameron (1998) were able to put together a table based on fisher's knowledge that shows ecological relationships between physical and biological components of a marine ecosystem (Table 1). A partial reproduction of one of the tables in their study shows the potential for the application to design of MPAs.

 

Table 1: Taken from Fuller and Cameron (1998), Showing Information Collected From Fishers

Species
Bottom Type
Feed
Spawning
Life History
Temperature/ Season
Associated Species
Other

Cod

-rocky bottom and ragged peaky areas

-clams, mussels, shrimp, periwinkles

-they are found on top of the bank during spawning and the top are often gravely or sandy

-the cod would come in with the ice around Newfoundland

-often in the same area as haddock

Lobster

-hard rocky bottom on the inshore

they get soft in the summer, when water temperatures are high

-they move according to water temperature

-they didn't occur where there was a lot of sea urchins

Hence, Fuller and Cameron's work shows the various associations that might exist in benthic communities as well as the occurrence of these communities on a particular substrate. These relationships can be further validated using the rigor of a modern scientific approach. The application to planning a system of representative MPAs becomes obvious as such work allows for the classification of marine landscapes based on bottom type as well as the occurrence of marine communities. TEK gives researchers the potential to develop hypothesis on many ecological questions such as species associations. These hypotheses can be tested over wider areas. Of course, TEK has does have limitations in this type of application as fishers' tend to have knowledge associated with the species they fish.

TEK can also be used to identify questions about change in the marine environment. For example, Fuller and Cameron (1998) show the disappearance of Barndoor Skate from areas of the Scotian Shelf by interviewing fishermen. Such information could be critical in the development of monitoring programs for established MPAs, as well as identifying critical areas for species that may becoming endangered.

Formulating questions using traditional knowledge can also be important when considering social aspects surrounding MPAs. Neis's fourth component shows that one critical component of TEK is shared knowledge about other management systems. Research is needed to show where and indeed if MPAs are an appropriate management mechanism for the area they are being employed in.

 

2.3 Issues in Using TEK to Identify Research Questions in MPA Planning

Designing the appropriate strategy to incorporate TEK into the design of a research program is a large question. There are many issues that must be considered when engaging in this process. One of the most important questions is considering the opposition which surrounds the establishment of MPAs. Fuller and Cameron (1998) state that some fishermen were afraid to participate in their study because they felt the information would be used to establish MPAs which would then exclude them from their fishing grounds. The design of a research program needs to be thoughtfully conceived such that it strives for objectivity with a balance of research projects. Research projects that show why MPAs may not be appropriate to establish will be as important as research that shows why MPAs are appropriate. The research program must also work with those who provide TEK to answer questions that they may have about the establishment of MPAs and the creation of a systems plan.

 

3.0 Building a System of MPAs on the Scotian Shelf

 

3.1 Current Initiatives

Recently, Canada has endorsed the use of MPAs; there are currently three federal programs for creating marine reserves in Canada. The first program has been created by Canadian Heritage. The aim of this program is to establish a system of protected areas that represent each of Canada's 29 marine natural regions (DFO 1997). The second program falls under Environment Canada and has three designations available for protecting ocean and land areas of significant habitat, however, most of these designations in the marine realm focus on birds (DFO 1997). The third program has been newly established with the recent passage of the Oceans Act 1997. Under the Oceans Act a marine protected area is:

"An area of the sea that forms part of the internal waters of Canada, the territorial sea of Canada or the exclusive economic zone of Canada and has been designated under this section [35.(1)] for special protection (DFO 1997)."

The Oceans Act lists a number of purposes for establishing MPAs including (DFO 1997):

  • conservation of commercial and non-commercial fisheries;
  • conservation and protection of endangered or threatened marine species and their habitat;
  • conservation and protection of unique habitats; conservation and protection of marine areas of high biodiversity or biological productivity;
  • conservation of any area to fulfill this Ministry's mandate.

Under this Act, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) is also responsible for developing a system of MPAs, which will be a part of the larger overall framework of the Oceans Management Strategy (DFO 1997).

 

3.2 Creating A System of MPAs in Atlantic Canada

The Oceans Act mandates that DFO follow a process of identifying, evaluating, selecting, and establishing MPAs (DFO 1997). Currently, several areas have been nominated as potential sites. One site known as "The Gully" has been now designated as a pilot MPA. The Department of Fisheries is also sponsoring the development of research for MPAs through funding a small autonomous seed project through the Marine Affairs Program, Dalhousie University. This funding is being used to create an interdisciplinary research group known as the "MPA Think-Tank." The purpose of this group is to form the bases for the generation of detailed large-scale research proposals, consisting of thoroughly researched rationales. To date, three primary tasks have been identified, which are as follows:

  • identification of any knowledge gaps about the establishment, maintenance, and benefits of a system of MPAs;
  • the definition of a comprehensive research program to generate knowledge in both the sciences and social sciences such that the development of a system of MPAs is facilitated
  • the creation of databases to facilitate research projects in both the sciences and social sciences; one of the primary databases that will be created will be a database of funding specific projects.

To meet the above objectives, one of the most significant phases of this project will be collaboration not only among the academic community, but also with the broader community. TEK becomes an important component of identifying what areas need research when developing a systems plan for the Scotian shelf. Currently, this project is in its preliminary stages; the co-ordinators are starting to consider how TEK can be incorporated into the planning stages of this project.

 

References:

 

Allison, G.W., Lubechenco, J. and M.H. Carr. (1998) "Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine conservation." Ecological Applications. Vol. 8(1): 579-592.

 

Ballantine, W.J. (1998) "Networks of "no-take" marine reserves are practical and necessary." In: Proceedings of a symposium on marine protected areas and sustainable fisheries conducted at the Second International Conference on Science and the Management of Protected Areas, held at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 16-20 May 1994.pgs. 13-24.

 

Bohnsack, J.A. (1993) "Marine Reserves: They Enhance Fisheries, Reduce Conflicts, and Protect Resources." Oceanus. Vol. 36, no.3: 63-71.

 

Christensen, N.L. et al. (1996) "The Report of the Ecological Society of America Committee on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem management." Ecological Applications. Vol. 6(3): 45-69.

 

Cowper, D. (1999) Community and Science: A Critical Interface in Co-Management. Un-published paper for MARA 5012. Halifax, NS: Marine Affairs Program, Dalhousie University.

 

Davis, D. (1995) "A systems approach to the identification of marine protected areas." In: Proceedings of a symposium on marine protected areas and sustainable fisheries conducted at the Second International Conference on Science and the Management of Protected Areas, held at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 16-20 May 1994.pgs. 138-144.

 

Department of Fisheries and Oceans. (1997) An Approach to the Establishment and Management of Marine Protected Areas Under the Oceans Act: A Discussion Paper. Ottawa, Ontario: Communications Directorate.

 

Fuller, S. and P. Cameron. (1998) Marine Benthic Seascapes: Fishermen's Perspectives. Marine Issues Committee Special Publication Number 3. Halifax, NS: Ecology Action Centre.

 

Goodridge, R., Oxenford, H.A., Hatcher, B.G. and F. Narcisse. "Changes in the shallow reef fishery associated with implementation of a system of fishing priority and marine reserve areas in Soufriere, St. Lucia." (1997) Proceedings of the Forth0Ninth Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Christ Church, Barbados November 1996, 316-339. (Edited by R. LeRoy Creswell) Printed Fort Pierce Florida1997.

 

Johnson, M. (1992) Research on Traditional Environmental Knowledge: Its Development and its Role. In: Johnson, M. (ed.) Lore: Capturing Traditional Ecological Knowledge. IDRC, Ottawa, Ontario. pp 3-22.

 

Kelleher, G., Bleakely, C., and S. Wells (eds.). (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Washington, D.C.: Environment Department, World Bank.

 

Neis, B. (1995) "Fishers' Ecological Knowledge and Marine Protected Areas." In: Proceedings of a symposium on marine protected areas and sustainable fisheries conducted at the Second International Conference on Science and the Management of Protected Areas, held at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 16-20 May 1994.pgs. 205-213.