|
- Brendan
Connolly
- Ireland
Issues Position
Paper
Issues put forward in this paper
are for consideration by the Working Seminar and are ranked
under the headings suggested by the Steering Committee of
the Working Seminar.
1. The meaning or various
meanings of "ecological knowledge"
Two types of ecological knowledge:
Scientific and Practical;
- Scientific: Ecological
Knowledge is scientific knowledge about the functioning
of the, whole, or part of the, biological system on
earth. Ecological literature suggests a number of
different definitions of ecology. The one suggested by
the present author lays stress on the fact that the
environment existed before the biological system
developed and it is as a result of the nature of the
earthly environment during the last 400 million years
that biological activity exists. The suggested
(scientific) definition of ecology is: "Ecology is the
study of the manner in which the environment in its
totality allows biological life to exist". The totality
of the environment includes both non-biological and
biological factors (Connolly 1998). The scientific
perception of ecology tends to have a top-down approach,
attempting to identify principles and ground rules which
are of universal ecological relevance, and testing these
in a variety of individual ecological
instances.
- Practical: People live in
ecological relationships and situations all their lives
without perceiving it in the manner that the scientific
approach does. Most people see it as just living their
life. Farmers see it as growing crops and rearing stock,
fishermen see it as catching and selling fish, urban
peoples see it as doing their work in order to earn their
pay. Without themselves seeing it in those terms, most
people are practical ecologists, using specialised
knowledge about the particular ecosystem within which
they acquire their necessary resources.
2. Issues arising when
theorising or conceptualising "ecological
knowledge"
Issues arising from the scientific
and practical approaches;
- Science: The advantage of
taking the top-down approach is the potential this gives
for a broader perspective which will result in a clearer
understanding of the basic mechanisms which operate in
the very complex chemical process which is life. One aim
of this approach is to be able to generalise from one
situation to another. A disadvantage of scientific
ecology is that most of those who carry it out are
usually not practically dependent on the ecological
system which they study. Researchers usually do not
personally economically depend on fish catches and sales,
agricultural markets or on hunting and gathering for
food. This can create a certain remoteness and lack of
immediate urgency in predicting future events correctly.
The need to play safe and to have a margin of error in an
ecological system is not as great for the researcher of
the system as it is for the active participants in that
system. On the other hand, not being an active
participant in the ecological system in question, the
researcher may be able to be more objective and
independent in histher judgments. The researcher would
therefore tend not to have a vested interest in
particular conclusions being arrived at.
- Practical: Depending on an
ecological system for one's livelihood creates a very
strong appreciation and need for a good understanding of
its functioning. Decisions need to be taken within a
certain time frame and they need to be correct. This type
of situation tends to focus the mind. For those living in
an urban ecology, crossing the street has got to be done
safely. Fishermen need to fish in areas where there are
fish or they will go bankrupt. Therefore practical
knowledge tends to be real and to the point. The
disadvantage however can be, for practical participants
living in a money economy, that short and medium term
economic pressures may force decision making which is not
sustainable in the longterm. In fact, practical
ecological knowledge may realise that the short and
medium term decisions are non-sustainable, but be unable
to do anything about it.
3. Observations. issues and
for problems arising from participants experiences in
eco-knowledge focussed research:
From the context, the term
"participant" is taken to mean the participant in the
ecosystem (i.e.: a farmer, a fisherman) rather than a
participatory researcher of eco-knowledge.
From the present author's
experience of human ecological research in fishing
communities in Ireland and The Netherlands (Connolly 1997),
the experience which an ecological participant, such as a
fisherman, had of eco-knowledge focused research was little
or nothing. This type of research had not been carried out
in their communities previously. When initially approached,
some expressed a doubt as to whether they "would know the
correct answers". However, when the idea, of their
experience and knowledge being of real and broad practical
value, was put to them they generally understood the aim of
the study and were usually willing, even enthusiastic,
respondents.
As regards the attitudes of Dutch
and Irish respondents towards fishery biologists and their
research, the communities in these two European countries
contrasted in one respect while agreeing in another. The
Dutch respondents tended to be of the opinion that the
fishery biologists did not employ correct research
procedures and were therefore incorrect in many of their
conclusions. They claimed that their own experience at sea
confirmed this. The Irish fishermen thought that the fishery
biologists were reasonably correct in their conclusions, but
that much more research needed to be done before information
on fish stocks would be adequate. Both Irish and Dutch
fishermen felt out of touch with researchers, helpless in
the face of a remote research establishment and far removed
from decision making on fish stock assessments. In Ireland
the remote geographic location of the fishing communities
was often blamed for this, but the Dutch fishermen also felt
ignored and disregarded by their research establishment and
their communities were located between one half and three
hours travel from both the Dutch and the European Union
fishery research and management organisations. It should be
noted that eco-knowledge or any knowledge systems research
has up to now effectively been absent from fisheries
research in Ireland and The Netherlands.
4. Observations respecting
the similarities and differences embedded in various
ecological knowledge systems:
Contrasts of scientific and
practical ecological knowledge systems have been discussed
under the second heading above, and can be summarised as
follows:
- Science: Good overview and
broad perspective, objective but can be lacking in
practical application.
- Practical: Focussed because of
immediate dependency factor, high level of specialisation
but can have vested interests, tendency for decision
making more controlled by short term economics rather
than longterm sustainability.
5. Remarks respecting ways
and means of reconciling differences between scientific and
experience-based ecological knowledge
systems
Certain differences between
scientific and experience-based (practical) ecological
knowledge systems are necessary and "good" in the sense that
they exist as a result of the difference in the nature and
aim of the work carried out by a researcher and a practical
participant in an ecological system. As a researcher one
usually doesn't have the time, energy and skills, nor is it
your function, to also work as a farmer or fisherman, and
vice versa. The actual work a researcher carries out is
simply different from that of the practical participant in
an ecological system, and needs to be done as much as that
of the practical participant. In fact, the two can and
should compliment each other. However, both the scientist
and the participant have knowledge of the same ecological
system and therefore, particularly because there are
differences between them, these two bodies of knowledge need
to be brought into contact to attain the potential of the
fully integrated body of knowledge. The reason why this
tends not to have happened in the past is because the lines
of communication between scientists and practical
participants have traditionally varied from bad to
non-existent. The opening of lines of communication may be
best achieved via specialised communicators; persons whose
job it is to communicate between the two eco-knowledge
systems. In fact, in research carried out by the present
author (Connolly 1997), certain fishing communities were
working on a practical level towards more sustainable
exploitation practices and in these instances lines of
communication had been opened, either via fisheries
management organisations, or unofficial local contact
persons who voluntarily took this role upon themselves. In
both cases it was largely due to the good social skills of
the individual communicator involved that the lines of
communication existed.
A very important aspects of lines
of communication is that the information flow is in both
directions. The practical participants need to feel that
their contributions really do influence the opinions of the
researchers, and the researchers need to feel that the
information they receive is reliable. One group should
neither dominate nor hold out information on the
other.
The question, as to who pays such a
communicator, should be given special attention as this
could create a conflict of interest for the
communicator.
6. Observations on the
strengths and weaknesses evident in the published literature
respecting eco-knowledge research.
Information on eco-knowledge and
general indigenous and traditional knowledge systems
research is scant outside of this field. Agricultural,
fisheries, veterinary and human health care scientists have
traditionally not paid much attention to eco- and
indigenous/traditional knowledge systems. Even those
possessing this knowledge undervalued it, often being
unaware of its full potential. In the modem technical press
serving a particular eco-user group, the eco- and indigenous
knowledge base which they posses is usually largely ignored.
The immediate need for economic survival can easily obscure
the often more subtle and longterm value of eco-knowledge.
The conservation oriented "Green" literature also
concentrates more on other areas. Maybe this is due to the
emphasis this interest group puts on the deleterious effects
which human knowledge has had on the environment and
therefore are suspicious of it?
The body of literature describing
Indigenous Knowledge Research is much concerned with
sustainable ecological practices and is a rich source of
Eco-Knowledge (eg: the Indigenous Knowledge &
Development Monitor , etc.).
7. Observation regarding the
design of eco-knowledge research:
The aims of the research study
control the design of the study and the area of
eco-knowledge to be studied. Both the aims and the
particular area of eco-knowledge need to be defined and
clearly understood by the researchers.
As the research is primarily
concerned with gathering, recording and assessing knowledge,
it has to identify the sources of eco-knowledge. Knowledge,
in a form that we can retrieve it, is firstly stored in
people's brains. Research techniques such as those used in
anthropology and sociology would seem the most appropriate
to access this knowledge. The information can be retrieved
by means of qualitative interview and/or quantitative
questionnaires. Qualitative interviews to find out the range
of knowledge which exists amongst the people, followed by
quantitative questionnaires in order to assess the spread of
this knowledge in the population. The functional
relationships between the questions in the quantitative
questionnaires need also to be considered. An attitude of
courteous respect fbr the experience, achievements and
knowledge of the respondents should be adopted on the part
of the researcher, this includes attention being given to
form of dress worn by the researcher. Other sources of
knowledge, such as literature and historical records should
also be consulted.
Residence of the researchers within
the community for a period of weeks should be aimed for.
This will allow a more correct interpretation of the
attitudes and reactions of the respondents. Alternative
sources of information relevant to the aims of the study
should also be identified. In eco-knowledge research this
may be biological scientific knowledge, economic records,
trends in eco-production over the years, human demography
and geography etc. The eco-knowledge recorded from the study
community should be compared with this information and any
discrepancies investigated.
Crucial to all eco-knowledge is
information, both from local and scientific sources, about
the particular characteristics of the local environment. As
indicated by the definition of ecology given above, the
environment is the ultimate arbiter as to the type of human
ecology which is carried on, and about which the
eco-knowledge exists.
The recorded data should be
suitable for the statistical analyses which are to be
used.
8. Observations respecting
particular methodological issues, challenges and
needs:
In eco-knowledge research, which
includes ecology and areas of research usually included in
the social sciences, the main challenge and possible
methodological conflict may be between the biological
science approach and the social science approach. These
areas of science have traditionally not been very closely
integrated. Human ecology, in the opinion of the present
author, is one discipline, within which there are many
specialised areas (Connolly 1998). These include all the
social sciences as well as biological science. Workers
within these areas have at times viewed involvement by
others in their field as uninformed encroachments on their
territory to be avoided. While many do see the potential of
a fully integrated approach to the study of humans, such a
wholistic approach is still a very long way from being
universally applied.
The career structures of the
researchers and research specialisations of organisations
involved in studying humans (ie: human ecology), are not as
yet suited to a wholistic and truly integrated approach to
human ecology. This is a very powerful force supporting the
fragmentation of human ecology.
9. Observations concerning
the relation of ecological knowledge to public natural
resource management policy:
Public management policies are
influenced, in most western democracies, by both expert
advice and popular public opinion. The present author would
see the role of the researcher to be one of recording
information and disseminating it to policy makers and the
general public alike. This allows informed judgment and
debate on the part of the public and policy
makers.
However, what is known to
participants in ecological systems to be the most
sustainable manner of exploitation of a natural resource may
not always be the way they actually exploit the resource.
Official policy and regulations and economic circumstances
may bring about situations that realistically the only
possible course of action to take is the non-sustainable
over -exploitative one. This may happen despite the existing
ecological knowledge, simply because participants in an
ecological system may be able to afford to fall behind their
competitors or do not want to go out of business. These
situations need to be highlighted by researchers who can
inform natural resource management policy makers of the
ecological knowledge which exists, and the possible contrast
that exists between it and actual practices on the
ground.
Ecological knowledge about a
natural resource should be integrated with other information
on that resource so that public management policy makers are
fully informed of all aspects of exploitation of that
resource.
In the exploitation of any
resource, vested interests will attempt to influence policy
formulation for their own advantage. For this reason it is
important that, firstly: the bona fide's of the ecological
knowledge is verified as much as possible, and secondly:
that public natural resource management policy formulation
procedure are carried out in a impartial and proper manner,
and that the natural resource users are able to monitor the
progress of the procedures.
10. Observations on how
shared "ecological knowledge" might change relationships
between resource users and resource
regulators:
The important point on the sharing
of ecological knowledge hinges in the lines of two-way
communication between the resources users and the resource
regulators, already discussed in section 5 in relation to
resource users and researchers. Suffice to say that the
resource users should feel that their opinions and knowledge
get a fair hearing and have a real impact on the judgments
of the resource regulators, and that the regulators feel
they are receiving genuine information from the resource
users.
As also mentioned in section 3,
many fishermen who were respondents in a study carried out
by the present author in Ireland and The Netherlands
(Connolly 1997), felt ignored by and irrelevant to fishery
regulators both in their own country and in the European
Union. This lack of perceived influence gave rise to a
feeling of frustration and powerlessness.
The recording and dissemination of
ecological knowledge could sensitise the natural resource
regulators to the wealth of wisdom which exists in
communities which have experience of these resources for
many generations. This could change the relationship between
resource users and regulators, particularly when resource
regulators realise that users do know what sustainable
exploitation is and what is not, and when resource users
feel their opinions, experiences and knowledge are being
taken seriously and are influencing natural resource
management regulations.
11. Specific research design
and methodological recommendations:
- Make sure that the goals for
information gathering are achievable (eg: will resource
users disclose income, can level of resource exploitation
be quantified, can biological production of the resource
be quantified, do generated data sets suit available
statistical analyses etc.)
- The present author would be
inclined towards hand written notes of interviews, typed
out fully the same or next day when it is still fresh in
the memory, rather than recording interview on audio
tape. Audio recording was found to be prone to mechanical
brake down and was thought to have an off-putting effect
on the respondents.
- As part of the formulation of
conclusions of the study to take into account the
possible alternative decisions which the active
participants in an ecological system could have taken.
(eg: Why do fishermen opt to fish all their lives,
considering it is one of the most dangerous types of work
one can do in the western world).
- All respondents to be kept
informed of the progress of the study with a yearly news
letter as well as a summary of the final results. Copies
of the full report could be lodged at convenient
locations in the relevant communities, such as local
development or user-group organisation offices or
municipal authority offices.
- All communications and results
to be written in clear non-jargon non-technical
language.
References
Connolly, B. (1997) Traditional
Fishery Knowledge and Practice for Sustainable Marine
Resources Management in Northwestern Europe: A Comparative
Study of Fisheries in Ireland and The Netherlands. Under
the auspices of the Human Capital and Mobility Programme of
the European Union; Leiden Ethnosystems and Development
Programme (LEAD), Institute of Cultural and Social Sciences,
Leiden University, The Netherlands, in collaboration with
Department of Zoology, University College, Galway, Ireland.
176pp.
Connolly, B. (1998) Human Ecology:
One Coherent Unit, not a Multi- or Interdisciplinary
Amalgam. Journal of Human Ecology, 9(4):
297-310.
|